4 - Water Management
Surface Water and Water Quality Monitoring & Management
Wisconsin has 15,000 lakes, more than 12,600 rivers and streams, five million acres of wetlands, and 1,000 miles of Great Lakes shoreline. Wisconsin’s waters extend over 330 watersheds and 32 basins, including the Great Lakes Basin and the Mississippi River Basin. Golf courses can minimize impacts to waterbodies from golf course operations and prevent nonpoint sources of pollution through effective utilization of BMPs.
Generally, a quantity of stormwater enters the golf course area, supplemented by what falls on the golf course property, and then the stormwater leaves the golf course. Golf courses are realistically capable of having only a small impact on major stormwater flow. That impact should be to add only small increments of water over a given period of time. This function is known as “detention.”
When golf courses are designed and built, their drainage capability is guided by an average rainfall event of a given frequency. For example, typically, a golf course drainage system is designed to detain a two- or five-year rain event. In other words, when that rain event happens, the golf course will have the ability to be reasonably drained in a matter of hours, as excess water not absorbed by the soil flows through the drainage system, is temporarily held, and eventually leaves the property. In some instances, the designs of golf courses and other recreational facilities are required to handle a 20-, 50- or 100-year rain event, which means the golf course must detain more water for perhaps a longer period of time.
Golf courses employ a variety of practices to protect surface water and groundwater quality. In Wisconsin, these include nutrient management plans, integrated pest management plans, stormwater pollution prevention plans, aquatic plant management plans, water quality monitoring plans (including water sampling), and other protocols incorporating BMPs designed to protect and conserve water.
Reference the Planning, Design, and Construction; Irrigation; Nutrient Management: Mowing and Rootzone Management; Integrated Pest Management; Responsible Pesticide Management; and Maintenance Operations Sections for additional BMPs.
“Water is a critical natural resource which requires thoughtful management for conservation and water quality.”
Surface water and Stormwater Management BMPs are intended to prolong the detention process as long as practical, harvest as much of the stormwater in surface or underground storage as reasonable, and to improve the quality of water leaving the property when possible.
Regulatory Considerations
In Wisconsin, the DNR is responsible for ensuring that the state’s surface water, groundwater, wastewater, and drinking water resources meet state water quality standards and federal requirements. The DNR monitors and assesses the quality of the state’s rivers, streams, lakes, reservoirs, groundwater, and sources of drinking water. This information is used to comply with federal reporting requirements and to make decisions regarding water quality management. Permitting, preservation activities, and compliance are enforced by the DNR; pursuant to Wis. Stat. s.283.83, the department establishes a continuing water pollution control planning process (CPP) resulting in plans for waters of the state, including:
Adequate effluent limitations and schedules of compliance
The incorporation of all elements of any applicable areawide waste management plans, basin plans and statewide land use plans
Total maximum daily load (TMDLs) for pollutants
Procedures for revision
Procedures for intergovernmental cooperation
Implementation procedures (including schedules of compliance) for revised or new water quality standards
Controls over the disposition of all residual waste from any water treatment processing
An inventory and ranking, in order of priority, of needs for construction of waste treatment works required to meet applicable requirements
The DNR is responsible for establishing Wisconsin’s surface water quality standards, including designated uses, water quality criteria, antidegradation, water quality variances, reporting, permit limits, TMDLs, and water quality management plans. The state also classifies waterbodies using categories that indicate special ecological value, known as Areas of Special Natural Resources Interest (ASNRI). Every three years, the DNR reviews Wisconsin’s water quality standards or related guidance to determine which standards need development or revision, as required by the CWA.
All standards are protective and signal a situation where there is possibility that water quality may be inadequate to meet its designated uses. Four general categories for water use are defined in the Wisconsin Surface Water Quality Standards:
Aquatic Life
Recreation
Public Health & Welfare
Wildlife
Some pollutants or conditions that may violate the Aquatic life standard include low levels of dissolved oxygen (DO), or toxic substances such as metals or pesticides. Wisconsin Administrative Code NR 102 contains criteria for phosphorus, DO, pH, bacteria, and temperature.
The DNR is responsible for developing a water quality strategic plan, which is used as a state blueprint for improving water quality and supports monitoring responsibilities under the federal Clean Water Act (CWA). The DNR must identify and prepare an assessment of lakes, rivers, streams, and estuaries failing to meet or not expected to meet water quality standards and not supporting designated uses (swimming, drinking, aquatic life, etc.); this assessment known as the 303(d) list of impaired or threatened waters must be sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) every two years as part of Sections 305(b) and 303(d) of the CWA. The State must then establish a Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) for waterbodies identified on the 303(d) List. TMDLs are scientifically derived targets that set the greatest amount of a particular substance that can be added to a waterway on a daily basis and still keep it healthy.
The DNR also administers Wisconsin’s Nonpoint Source Program to reduce water quality impacts from nonpoint sources (NPS) of pollution. NPS pollution is caused by rainfall or snowmelt moving over and through the ground. Runoff picks up natural and human-made pollutants, depositing them into rivers, lakes, wetlands, and groundwater. Golf courses are required to follow NPS state regulations for fertilizers and pesticide use under Wis. Adm. Code NR 151 and NR 216. Under state law, the DNR coordinates NPS program implementation with the DATCP.
Through Chapter ATCP 50, Wis. Adm. Code, DATCP establishes technical standards and elements for program implementation. The DATCP regulates soil and conservation practices and standards in Wisconsin, at a county level. This includes approval of Land and Water Resource Management (LWRM) Plans by county, pursuant to Wis. Stat. s.92.
LWRM plans define a mix of approaches (e.g., regulatory, nonregulatory, financial, and technical assistance) for implementing state performance standards. The steps involved mirror the EPA’s NPS Program (Section 319) requirements for watershed-based plans. The non-agricultural performance standards are primarily implemented through Chapter NR 216, Wis. Adm. Code, the state’s Storm Water Discharge Permit rule.
Lastly, the DNR is the lead agency for administering the Section 401 certification program in Wisconsin. The DNR conducts Section 401 certification reviews of projects requiring a Section 404 permit from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for the discharge of dredged or fill material into waters of the U.S., including wetlands. Pursuant to Wis. Stat. s.281.
The following resources and references will help inform golf course water management planning; owners and golf course superintendents should further investigate local surface water and groundwater regulatory requirements that may apply for the golf facility and its location.
Golf courses are responsible for reporting monthly water use and reporting annually to the DNR. Water Withdrawal Report Form: https://dnr.wi.gov/files/pdf/forms/3300/3300-275.pdf
Water Withdrawal Report Instructions:
https://dnr.wi.gov/topic/WaterUse/documents/WWReportGuidance.pdf
Wis. Stat. s.283.83 DNR Continuous Planning Process:
https://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/statutes/statutes/283/v/83
NR 102. Wisconsin Water Quality Standards for Surface Waters:
https://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/code/admin_code/nr/100/102
https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/topic/SurfaceWater/Standards.html
NR 103. Wisconsin Water Quality Standards for Wetlands
https://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/code/admin_code/nr/100/103
NR 104. Wisconsin Water Uses and Designated Standards
https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-12/documents/wiwqs-nr104.pdf
Wisconsin Nonpoint Source Program Management:
Overview https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/topic/Nonpoint/aboutNPSprogram.html
NR 151 Runoff Management https://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/code/admin_code/nr/100/151
Wis. Stat. s.35.93, ATCP 50 Soil and Water Resource Management Program http://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/code/admin_code/atcp/020/50.pdf
NR 216 Stormwater Discharge Permits https://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/code/admin_code/nr/200/216/_1
Wis. Stat. s.35.93, ATCP 29.01 Pesticide Use and Control https://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/code/admin_code/atcp/020/29.pdf
Information on TMDLs:
https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/topic/TMDLs
https://dnr.wi.gov/water/tmdlmap.aspx
https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/topic/TMDLs/TMDLReports.html
Full Overview of DNR Water Permit Applications (includes Aquatic Plant Management, Stormwater Management During Construction, Well Construction, Dredging, Wetland Disturbance, etc.):
https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/permits/water
Water Sample Collection Requirements for Well Construction & Pump Installation
https://dnr.wi.gov/files/PDF/pubs/DG/DG0088.pdf
Wis. Stat. s.281 Section 401 Certification Reviews:
https://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/statutes/statutes/281
https://www.epa.gov/wqs-tech/water-quality-standards-regulations-wisconsin
Wis. Stat. s.92 LWRM Plans:
https://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/1989/statutes/statutes/92.pdf
Best Management Practices
Adhere to all federal, state, and local water management and water quality regulations
Consult federal, state, and local water management agencies, and/or consult an approved management plan before performing construction activities, irrigation installation, integrated pest management, fertilization, or aquatic plant management
Golf course management may be affected by TMDL, mitigation, and watershed basin management action plans; determine applicability through the DNR
Wetlands are protected areas; consult with the DNR and federal agencies before altering natural aquatic areas
Studies of water supplies are needed for irrigation systems, including studies of waterbodies or flows on, near, and under the property to properly design a course’s stormwater system and water features to protect water resources
The disposal of sediments from surface water ponds (stormwater detention) may be subject to regulation
Golf courses must complete and submit monthly water use reporting to the DNR annually
Golf courses must comply with state-required pesticide reporting and maintain a nutrient management plan consistent with NR 151
Seek professional assistance from an environmental specialist to design an appropriate water sample collection strategy (i.e., sample water quality four to six times per year including field and lab analyses); use reputable equipment and qualified technicians to determine sites to be analyzed
Site Analysis
A watershed is commonly defined as a topographically delineated area that collects and drains water from rain and snowfall to a common outlet such as a stream, lake, or river. It is important to identify the watershed where the golf course is located.
Wisconsin watersheds may be searched by geography at: https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/topic/Watersheds/basins
Once the watershed is identified, check with the DNR to see if there is a Watershed Plan, or Water Quality Management (WQM) Plan, established for it.
Additional information on WQM Plans: https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/topic/SurfaceWater/wqmplan
WQM Plans are targeted watershed assessment-based water quality planning strategies which outline goals, land use, measures, monitoring levels, management options, requirements and recommendations. They describe sources of pollution for a watershed area and define actions to reduce pollution or restore quality. They are developed in collaboration with regional and local stakeholders, such as County Land and Water Conservation Departments. WQM Plans are created under the state’s Water Resources Planning and Monitoring Programs as part of Areawide Water Quality Management Plan requirements under Section 208 of the CWA. These areas may also have TMDLs for waterbodies in place.
Wisconsin law requires each county to have a land and water resource management (LWRM) plan that has been approved by the DATCP. The Land and Water Conservation Departments for each of Wisconsin’s 72 counties are required to develop LWRM plans which incorporate soil and water conservation standards, work plans, programs and regulations, monitoring, evaluation, stakeholders involved, and education strategies.
If a WQM, LWRM plan, or TMDLs are in place for the site - determine overall goals, understand concerns, and observe regulations to determine actions and tailor BMPs for the facility. The site’s physical attributes and location, watershed and groundwater assessments, presence of invasive or weedy species, aesthetics, and other environmental considerations, should all be identified. Trace the property’s local stream to its closest outlet point and then follow it to its final destination - the major river or other waterbody into which it drains. Evaluate the site’s impact and take steps to reduce pollution. Water drainage and flows, water quality protection, and aquatic plant management strategies should be designed which address all intended uses of stormwater, waterbodies, and groundwater to optimize conservation efforts and maintain water quality.
Additional Watershed Information
The Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) provides Rapid Watershed Assessments (RWA) which incorporate combined LWRM and DNR watershed report data by area: https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/wi/technical/dma/rwa/
Best Management Practices
Identify and explore the watershed within which the facility is located; determine if there is an existing WQM, LWRM plan, or TMDLs in place, determine overall goals and qualify concerns, identify water quality actions for the facility
Develop a water quality monitoring plan to monitor surface water, groundwater, and pond sediments
Outline goals and priorities to guide the development of the BMP necessary to support the lake/aquatic management plan
Identify possible downstream watershed areas that could receive surface water runoff from the property
Indicate surface water and flow patterns, stormwater flow, as well as existing and potential
holding capacity
Indicate impervious surfaces, such as buildings, parking lots, or pathways; location of all facilities, structures, treatments and measures used for soil erosion and sedimentation control and long-term stormwater management
Indicate major drainages and catch basins that connect to local surface water bodies
Accommodate/enhance natural lake processes in the construction of lakes and ponds; include herbaceous and woody vegetation and emergent and submergent shoreline plants to facilitate natural versus conventional erosion control techniques (e.g., riprap) and reduce operational costs where applicable
Determine groundwater locations in relation to the surface of the course, particularly in any areas that have a seasonally high-water table (<24”) or shallow bedrock (<4’); mapping areas of relatively high-water table is also important in identifying areas prone to groundwater flooding
Identify and understand depth to bedrock, depth to water tables, and soil types
Establish source control practices
Locate and protect wellheads
Irrigation should not directly strike or runoff to waterbodies and no-fertilization buffers should be maintained along edges
Use part-circle sprinklers along perimeters of natural water features to minimize their contact with reclaimed/fertigation overspray
Stormwater Management, Ponds, and Lakes
When the golf course is properly designed, rain and runoff captured in water hazards and stormwater ponds may provide most or all of the supplemental water necessary for irrigation under normal conditions, though backup sources may be needed during drought conditions. Stormwater capture is desirable where the lowest quality of water is needed to conserve potable water, maintain hydrologic balance, and improve water treatment.
Stormwater is the conveying force behind NPS pollution. Not all stormwater on a golf course originates there; it may flow from adjoining lands, including residential or commercial developments. Pollutants commonly found in stormwater include the microscopic wear products of brake linings and tires; oil; shingle particles washed off roofs; soap, dirt, and worn paint particles from car washing; leaves and grass clippings; pet and wildlife wastes; lawn, commercial, and agricultural fertilizers; and pesticides. The golf course serves as an important community resource for filtration. Stormwater control involves more than preventing flooding of facilities and play areas, it also includes:
Controlling amount and rate of water leaving the course
Storing irrigation water
Controlling erosion and sediment
Enhancing wildlife habitat
Removing waterborne pollutants
Addressing aesthetic and playability concerns
Develop a stormwater pollution prevention plan (SWPPP), especially prior to initiating construction activities. Source control practices should prevent pollution by limiting or reducing potential pollutants at their source, which involves keeping a clean, orderly construction site. The SWPPP should also include establishing water quality buffers and special management zones. If possible, construct ponds in a series, or “train”, to treat stormwater/site runoff. The first pond will catch the “first flush”, the second will provide additional filtering, and the third will filter and serve as a primary withdrawal pond for irrigation; infiltrating the first inch of stormwater helps to prevent water quality impacts.
A common treatment train includes turf swales on side slopes designed to filter and slow down the movement of stormwater, the second car in the train includes a swale or main channel that directs stormwater to the final car in the train, often a constructed wetland. Vegetated swales slow and infiltrate water and trap pollutants in the soil, where they can be destroyed naturally by soil organisms. Depressed landscape islands in parking lots can catch, filter, and infiltrate water, instead of letting it run off. When hard rains occur, an elevated stormwater drain inlet allows the island to hold the treatment volume and settle out sediments, while allowing the overflow to drain away.
Additional measures include maximizing use of pervious pavements, such as brick or concrete pavers, separated by sand and planted with grass. Special high-permeability concrete is available for cart paths or parking lots. Also, disconnect runoff from gutters and roof drains from impervious areas, so that water flows onto permeable areas, allowing it to infiltrate near the point of generation.
Most golf courses plan lakes and water hazards to be a part of the stormwater control and treatment system. However, natural waters of the state cannot be considered treatment systems and must be protected.
Stormwater management on a golf course includes storing irrigation water, controlling erosion and sediment, enhancing wildlife habitat, removing waterborne pollutants, controlling the amount and rate of water leaving the course, and addressing aesthetic and playability concerns.
Best Management Practices
The course site plan should maintain the natural wetland and watercourse systems and buffers, plus locate necessary stormwater management structures to upland areas; this helps maintain the natural drainage patterns and allows for recharge of runoff
A series or train of stormwater diversions, swales, and basins can be designed to collect stormwater runoff for use in supplementing irrigation
Avoid the direct discharge of stormwater runoff from parking lots, service areas, buildings and roadways directly into wetlands and watercourses; design stormwater treatment trains to direct stormwater across vegetated filter strips (such as turfgrass), through a swale into a wet detention pond, and then out through another swale to a constructed wetland system
Develop a SWPPP which includes a “natural systems engineering” or “soft engineering” approach that maximizes the use of natural systems to treat water; including special management zones, swales and slight berms, along with buffers to slow and infiltrate water and trap pollutants in the soil where they can be naturally destroyed by soil organisms
A swale and berm system will allow for resident time (ponding) for water to infiltrate through the root zone to reduce lateral water movement to the surface water body
Ideally buffers should be planted with native species to provide water quality benefits, pleasing aesthetics, and habitat/food sources for wildlife
Eliminate or minimize directly connected impervious areas
Use depressed landscape islands in parking lots to catch, filter, and infiltrate water, instead of letting it run off; when hard rains occur, an elevated stormwater drain inlet allows the island to hold the treatment volume and settle out sediments, while allowing the overflow to drain away
Ensure that no discharges from pipes go directly to water; disconnect runoff from gutters and roof drains from impervious areas, so that it flows onto permeable areas that allow the water to infiltrate near the point of generation
Discharge or divert surface runoff onto wide, relatively flat vegetated areas to promote infiltration and ground water recharge
Reduce the frequency of mowing at the lake edge and collect or direct clippings to upland areas where runoff and wind will not carry them back to the lake
Consider using pervious pavers for walkways, such as brick or concrete pavers separated by sand and planted with grass; and minimize use of curbing on parking areas; where reduction is difficult, large parking areas can incorporate landscaped areas to help maintain natural recharge; special high-permeability concrete is available for cart paths or parking lots; pervious overflow parking should be used to accommodate seasonal parking
Constructed wetlands (artificial wetland to treat greywater or stormwater runoff) should have an impervious bottom to prevent groundwater contamination
Reverse-grade around the perimeter to control surface water runoff into ponds and reduce nutrient loads
Dredge or remove sediment to protect beneficial organisms that contribute to the food web and overall lake health
The placement of bunkers and the shaping of contours surrounding a green should allow proper drainage and provide for the treatment and absorption of runoff from the green
Monitor pond water level for water loss (seepage) to underground systems; if seepage is occurring, it may be necessary to line or seal the pond or install pumps to relocate water
Install water-intake systems that use horizontal wells placed in the subsoil below the storage basin; use a post pump to filter particulate matter
Additional information on constructed or artificial wetlands in Wisconsin:
https://dnr.wi.gov/topic/wetlands/documents/3500-2018-02FinalNonfederalWetland.pdf
Reference the Planning, Design, and Construction section for additional stormwater BMPs.
Buffer Zones
A riparian buffer, for the purposes of this document, is a riparian zone that is managed in a vegetated condition in order to achieve water quality protection or improvement. Buffers around the shore of a waterbody or other sensitive areas filter and purify runoff as it passes across the buffer. Ideally, plant buffers with native species in order to provide a triple play of water quality benefits, including filtering of runoff, provide pleasing aesthetics, and supplying habitat/food sources for wildlife. Continue these plantings into the water to provide emergent vegetation for aquatic life, even if the pond is not used for stormwater treatment. Effective buffer areas filter and trap sediment from stormwater runoff to reduce pollutants.
Reference for additional information on filter strips and buffer areas:
https://prod.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_020349.pdf
Best Management Practices
Buffer areas should be maintained along all water edges above the high-water mark; widths should be a minimum of 5 feet but as wide as possible without impacting course difficulty, course design, or pace of play; these areas are critical in filtering overland runoff and reducing pollutants; they should be left in a natural state
Institute buffers and special management zones up gradient of riparian buffers to protect waterbodies
All or most of the out-of-play waterbodies should have shoreline buffers planted with native or well-adapted noninvasive vegetation to provide food and shelter for wildlife
Mow buffers in the direction that allows the mower discharge chute to direct clippings away from riparian areas
Construct random small dips and ridges of a few inches to a foot within buffer strips to promote diversity within the plant community and provide a healthier and more productive littoral zone
Irrigation should not directly strike or run off to waterbodies
Apply fertilizer and pesticides based on the effective swath; keep application on target and away from buffers or channel swales; as a general practice, keep all chemical applications at least 20 feet away from the water’s edge when using rotary spreaders
Use a deflector shield to prevent fertilizer and pesticide spills from contacting surface waters
Where a desired buffer width cannot be met due to course layout, prevent runoff from entering the water body at that location by diverting it to adjacent areas where adequately wide buffers can be developed and maintained; methods of diversion can include shallow swales, low berms, and grading of fairway slopes away from stream banks
Reference the DNR Technical Standard 1100 for additional guidelines on management of buffer zones: https://dnr.wi.gov/topic/stormwater/documents/dnr1100-TurfNutrientManagement.pdf
Aquatic Plant Management
The extensive damage caused to aquatic ecosystems by invasive and nuisance aquatic plant species in the United States has been well documented. An aquatic plant management strategy should address the intended uses of the waterbody to maintain water quality. Proper documentation includes the site’s physical attributes and location, the presence of invasive or weedy species, aesthetics, watershed and groundwater assessments, and other environmental considerations.
Superintendents can employ a variety of practices to assist in maintaining aquatic ecosystems or restoring them to health, including biological, mechanical, cultural, and chemical methods. Collecting and reviewing these practices for a specific site is one of the first steps in formulating an integrated control strategy.
Properly designed ponds with a narrow fringe of vegetation along the edge are more resistant to problems than those with highly maintained turf. Superintendents should encourage clumps of native emergent vegetation at the shoreline, plus use ecosystem, watershed, and cost-benefit perspectives to determine long-term management strategies.
Plant life growing on littoral shelves may help to protect receiving waters from the pollutants present in surface water runoff, and a littoral shelf is often required in permitted surface water-retention ponds. In ponds with littoral plantings, problem plants should be selectively controlled without damaging littoral shelves. It’s frequent practice to remove filamentous algae by hand and/or frequently apply algaecide to small areas of algae (spot treatment). Regularly assess results of invasive weed control programs (including quantitative documentation of results from control strategies) and re-evaluate management options as part of a professional plant management strategy.
Phytoplankton give water its green appearance and provide the base for the food chain in ponds. Tiny animals called zooplankton use phytoplankton as a food source. Large aquatic plants (aquatic macrophytes) can grow rooted to the bottom and supported by the water (submersed plants), rooted to the bottom or shoreline and extended above the water surface (immersed plants), rooted to the bottom with their leaves floating on the water surface (floating-leaved plants), or free-floating on the water surface (floating plants). Different types of aquatic macrophytes have different functions in ponds.
Ponds may be constructed on golf courses strictly as water hazards or for landscape purposes, but they often have the primary purpose of drainage and stormwater management and function as a source of irrigation water. The use of aquatic plants to improve the appearance of a pond (aquascaping) can be included as part of the overall landscape design.
Best Management Practices
Adhere to federal, state, and local regulations for aquatic plant management, secure proper permits for nuisance control activity
Outline goals and priorities to guide the development of the BMP necessary to support aquatic plant management
Design pond basin dimensions to limit pond littoral zone (area where light penetrates to bottom) and therefore area supporting aquatic plant growth; except in instances of extreme water clarity, basins slopes of 3:1 are routinely effective
Maintain a narrow band of open water at the pond edge to control the expansion of plants into more desirable littoral plantings
Proper design with a narrow fringe of vegetation along the pond’s edge are more resistant to problems than those with highly maintained turf
In ponds with littoral plantings, problem plants should be selectively controlled without damaging littoral shelves
Encourage clumps of native emergent vegetation at the shoreline; establish special management zones around edges
A comprehensive lake management plan should include strategies to control the growth of nuisance vegetation that can negatively affect a pond’s water quality and treatment capacity
Only licensed individuals or contractors certified in aquatics and mosquito (5.0) by DATCP should be allowed to select and apply aquatic pesticides; utilize physical or other controls first under a proper IPM program; pesticides should be used as a last resort
Frequently remove filamentous algae (typically long, stringy, slimy, and thread-like in appearance) by hand and/or frequently apply algaecide to small areas of algae (spot treatment)
If possible, avoid the use of copper or aquatic herbicides; apply copper products to tie-up phosphorus and use shading compounds to reduce light penetration as per label instructions to reduce the risk of impairing water quality and causing negative biological impacts
To reduce the risk of oxygen depletion, use an algaecide containing hydrogen peroxide instead of one with copper or endothall
Where possible, allow plants such as arrowhead or pickerelweed to inhabit littoral zones to improve water quality
Beneficial aquatic plants can help filter nutrients and chemicals, stabilize shorelines, and provide important fish and wildlife habitat; consult with a professional aquatic management consultant for proper planning, permitting, and implementation
Triploid grass carp (with a DNR permit) are sometimes used as a biological control for aquatic plants
Additional information for aquatic plant management and Wisconsin permit requirements:
https://dnr.wi.gov/lakes/plants/
Wetland Protection
Wetlands provide critical habitat for Wisconsin plants, fish and wildlife, clean water, protection from floods, recreation, and natural beauty. Wetlands are the transitional zones between uplands and deep water -- the areas are dependent on the presence of water for all or part of the time, at or above the surface, or within the root zone. Wetland soils include soil characteristics that differ from surrounding uplands and vegetation containing plants that have adapted to the presence of water; wetlands generally lack plants that are intolerant of wet conditions.
Wetlands are recognized for their role as nurseries for many species and as filters for removal of pollutants, helping to purify surface waters. The biological activity of plants, fish, animals, insects, and especially bacteria and fungi in a healthy, diverse wetland is the recycling factory of our ecosystem.
When incorporated into a golf course design, wetlands should be maintained as preserves and separated from managed turf areas with native vegetation or structural buffers. Constructed or disturbed wetlands may be permitted to be an integral part of the stormwater management system. Manmade buffers should be designed to improve habitat diversity and include a mixture of fast and slow-growing native trees, shrubs, or grasses to provide a diverse habitat for wildlife.
All wetlands in Wisconsin are protected under state law and most under the federal CWA, and in some places, by local regulations or ordinances. Activities such as filling for commercial development require a permit review process, administered by the USACE, to ensure no discharge of dredged or fill material significantly degrades the protected wetland area or to determine if a practicable alternative exists that is less damaging to the aquatic environment. Certification reviews of USACE Section 404 permit applications are conducted by the DNR.
Wisconsin wetlands information and regulations:
https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/topic/Wetlands
https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/topic/Wetlands/identification.html
https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/topic/Wetlands/permits
Wisconsin Section 401 Certification Reviews:
https://www.aswm.org/~aswm/pdf_lib/401_cert/wisconsin_case_study.pdf
https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-12/documents/wiwqs-wetlands.pdf
Best Management Practices
Adhere to federal, state, and local regulations for wetlands
Establish, maintain, or restore wetlands where water enters lakes to slow water flow and trap sediments
Maintain appropriate silt fencing and BMPs on projects upstream to prevent erosion and sedimentation
Natural waters cannot be considered treatment systems and must be protected (natural waters do not include treatment wetlands)
Establish a low- to no-maintenance level within a 75-foot buffer along natural wetlands
Establish and maintain a 100-foot riparian buffer around wetlands, springs, and spring runs
Do not fertilize riparian buffer areas above the high-water mark; leave them in a natural state
Water Quality Monitoring, Management, and Sampling
Water quality monitoring is used to determine whether outside events are impacting the water quality entering the golf course, and whether the golf course is having a positive, neutral, or negative effect on water quality. Monitoring also provides a body of evidence on the golf course’s environmental impact. It is important to include monitoring of surface water, groundwater, and pond sediments in a water quality monitoring plan.
A water quality monitoring plan should be implemented in three phases: background, construction, and long-term management. The same sites should be monitored at all stages, including preconstruction phase, although the monitoring plan can be modified based on site-specific conditions. Sampling of all watershed ingress and egress points is important to know what is flowing into the property to identify potential impacts and baseline of water quality data.
Golf course operation and watershed-specific parameters of concern (including applicable WQM plan, LWRM plan, or TMDLs) are used to determine sampling parameters. Typically, samples should be analyzed for nutrients, pH and alkalinity, sediments, suspended solids, dissolved oxygen (DO), heavy metals, bacteria, any pesticides expected to be used on the golf course; in addition to any other chemicals identified in TMDLs. The purpose of quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) is to ensure that chemical, physical, biological, microbiological, and toxicological data are appropriate and reliable. Data should be collected and analyzed using scientifically sound procedures. It is strongly recommended that a certified laboratory be utilized, and all QA/QC procedures followed. Consideration must be given to procedures that are simple, cost effective, and technically sound, and that minimize sampling related biases and ensure data integrity.
A single water quality sample is rarely meaningful in isolation, but regular monitoring is useful for establishing trends. Post-construction surface-water quality sampling should begin with the installation and maintenance of golf course turf and landscaping. Samples should be collected a minimum of three times per year. Should there be no discharge on the scheduled sample date, samples should be taken during the next discharge event.
Post-construction surface-water quality sampling should continue through the first three years of operation and every third year thereafter, provided that all required water quality monitoring has been completed and the development continues to implement all current management plans. It may also be wise to sample if a significant change has been made in course operation or design that could affect nearby water quality.
Seasonally the total dissolved salt concentrations (specific conductance) may become an issue if runoff from streets and highways contains deicing salts. This can potentially become a turf management issue if this saline water is captured and used for irrigation. Golf courses should also sample for macroinvertebrates as determined useful by water quality specialists.
Best Management Practices
Monitoring
Keep apprised on DNR Water Quality Standards and Rules updates
Generally accepted DO thresholds below which fish are stressed (3-4 ppm) or die (2 ppm) can be used as guides to implement mitigation strategies (e.g., artificial aeration); reduce stress on fish by keeping DO levels of property ponds above 4 ppm, measured in early morning hours (between dawn and 8 am); critical DO levels often happen at night when algae aren’t photosynthesizing, a morning measurement is more indicative of whether or not there are problems
Secondary environmental effects on surface water and groundwater from the chemical control of vegetation should be monitored and recorded
Manage impacts from waterfowl on waterbodies; monitor for bacteria, in addition to nutrients
Superintendents should monitor designated waters in their area for the persistence of highly toxic herbicides and algaecides in the environment
Record observations of fish, wildlife, and general pond conditions
Use a meter at each source of water withdrawal for irrigation; metering of the sources should be at the discharge side of the source pumps prior to any off-take piping; choose a meter that provides both a numeric cumulative volume reading and an instantaneous flow reading; this will enable the user to gauge consumption and obtain a quick estimation of the flow rate
Management
Adhere to all federal, state, and local water management and water quality regulations
Accommodate natural lake processes in the construction of lakes and ponds; include herbaceous and woody vegetation and emergent and submergent shoreline plants
Plants included in a riparian buffer zone restoration or an overall habitat enhancement plan should be native and non-invasive
Select woody vegetation to provide shade, especially along the south side of wide sections of a watercourse or waterbody, to provide cool water temperatures and to maintain suitable dissolved oxygen (DO) levels
Manipulate water levels to prevent low levels that result in warmer temperatures and lowered DO levels; aerate shallow lakes less than 6 feet in depth to maintain acceptable DO levels; aeration of deep lakes is also beneficial to mix stratified layers of water of differing temperatures
Install desirable native plants to naturally buffer DO loss and fluctuation
Maintain a buffer of at least 10 feet of healthy, unmowed vegetation along water edges to slow and filter overland flow to waterbodies
Maintain a narrow band of open water at the pond edge to control the expansion of plants into more desirable littoral plantings
Locate littoral shelves at the pond’s inlets and outlets to reduce problems with the playability and maintainability of a water hazard
Use dyes and aeration to maintain appropriate light and DO levels
Where applicable, aerate at night to control oxygen depletion in any pond
Mow lake and pond collars at 2 inches or higher to slow and filter overland flow to water bodies
Avoid the use of trimmers along the edge of the water body
Sod or reseed bare or thinning turf areas
Mulch areas under tree canopies to cover bare soil
Use integrated pest management (IPM) strategies to limit pesticide use when possible
Through the IPM plan, apply appropriate herbicides to minimize damage to non-target littoral plantings; use appropriate aquatic herbicides to avoid turfgrass injury
Apply algaecides to small areas to prevent fish mortality; do not treat the entire pond at once
Select algaecides containing hydrogen peroxide instead of copper or endothall to treat high populations of phytoplankton; if possible, avoid the use of copper, at least for natural water systems - if copper products are used, apply per label instructions to reduce the risk of impairing water quality and causing negative biological impacts
Spot-treat filamentous algae or frequently remove algae by hand to prevent lowering oxygen concentrations in water; consider working with a reputable pond manager to strategize best ways to address
Use appropriate aquatic herbicides to minimize damage to non-target littoral plantings, prevent turfgrass injury, and to protect water quality and wildlife habitat
Follow a site-specific Nutrient Management Plan and nutrient management BMPs
Apply fertilizer and reclaimed irrigation/fertigation appropriately to avoid surface and groundwater contamination
The introduction of aquatic triploid grass carp, biological controls, aeration, and chemical controls (herbicide/algaecide) must be approved and monitored according to permit and licensing protocols and compliance
Dredge excess sediments from ponds in accordance with approved plan to reduce irrigation system failures; treat dredged materials as a toxic substance; avoid contact with turf and dispose according to approved plan
Calibrate meters in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations at least once per year, prior to the start of the irrigation season
Sampling
Seek professional assistance from an environmental specialist to design an appropriate water sample collection strategy (i.e., sample water quality four to six times per year including field and lab analyses); use reputable equipment and qualified technicians to determine sites on property to be analyzed
Define data values appropriately based on the associated BMP, WQM plan, LWRM plan, or TMDLs to protect water quality
Conduct chemical and bacteriological testing through a Wisconsin accredited Water Quality Testing Lab; use reputable equipment and qualified technicians to determine sites to be analyzed
Post-construction surface-water quality sampling should begin with the installation and maintenance of golf course turf and landscaping; samples should be collected a minimum of three times per year and continue through the first three years of operation and during the wet and dry seasons every third year thereafter
Follow DNR water sample collection requirements for wells under NR 812
Follow DNR water standards and sample collection requirements for effluent/reclaimed water use under NR 217 and NR 218
Additional information:
DNR Water Quality Standards Rules Updates:
https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/topic/SurfaceWater/RuleUpdates.html
DNR Water Sampling Requirements for Wells:
https://dnr.wi.gov/files/PDF/pubs/DG/DG0088.pdf
DNR Water Sampling Requirements for Effluent Water:
https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/topic/Wastewater/WastewaterRules.html
Every golf course should have a plan to monitor the state of the environment and the effects the golf course may be having on the environment.
Sediment
During construction and/or renovation, temporary barriers and traps (i.e., silt fencing) must be used to prevent sediments from being washed off-site into waterbodies. Wherever possible, keep a vegetative cover on the site until it is ready for construction, and then plant, sod, or otherwise cover it as soon as possible to prevent erosion.
Best Management Practices
Have silt fences, sandbags, hay bales or other suitable soil entrapment barriers in place at all times during construction to prevent soil and other runoff contaminant movement from unexpected rainstorms; utilize erosion and sediment control BMPs such as wattles (logs), straw, or erosion matting as appropriate
Coordinate construction/renovation activities and plan in phases to minimize the amount of disturbed area and possible risk of contamination via runoff
When constructing drainage systems, pay close attention to engineering details such as subsoil preparation, the placement of gravel, slopes, and backfilling
Internal golf course drains should not drain directly into an open waterbody; the drains should discharge through pretreatment zones and/or vegetative buffers to help remove nutrients and sediments
Use shoreline grasses and/or other vegetation to prevent bank erosion
Use dry detention basins/catchments to buffer flooding and excessive runoff that may contain sediment
Maintain a vegetative cover on construction sites until it the site is ready for construction
Allow for ample turf cover before removing sediment controls
Control cart traffic to avoid highly erodible areas
Follow soil erosion control and stormwater guidance from the DNR https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/topic/Stormwater/publications.html
Human Health Concerns
Be sure to address areas where standing water may provide habitat for nuisance organisms. The use of pesticides should be part of an overall IPM strategy that includes biological controls, cultural methods, pest monitoring, and other applicable practices.
Best Management Practices
Use IPM principles to address insects that may pose a hazard to human health
Drain areas of standing water during wet seasons to reduce insect populations
Use Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) products according to label directions to manage waterborne insect larvae
Reference the Planning, Design, and Construction; Irrigation; Nutrient Management: Mowing and Root Zone Management; Integrated Pest Management; Responsible Pesticide Management; and Maintenance Operations Sections for additional BMPs.
Floodplain Restoration
Land use decisions and engineering standards must be based on the latest research science available. Reestablishment of natural water systems helps mitigate flooding and control stormwater. Address high sediment and nutrient loads and vertical and lateral stream migration causing unstable banks, flooding, and reductions in groundwater recharge.
Best Management Practices
Understand site characteristics and take necessary actions to control stormwater movement and prevent flooding
Develop a flood mitigation or flood management plan
Install stream buffers to restore natural water flows and flooding controls
Stabilize and restore natural areas that will attract wildlife species through installation of buffers in play areas
Install detention basins to store water and reduce flooding at peak flows
